Chapter 5 WHEN PEOPLE REBEL 1857 AND AFTER

Policies And The People

The East India Company's policies significantly impacted various sections of Indian society, including rulers, peasants, landlords, tribals, and sepoys, often leading to discontent and resistance. Nawabs and rajas experienced a decline in their authority and autonomy as the Company asserted its power through subsidiary alliances, annexation of territories (like Awadh in 1856), and interference in succession matters. Peasants and zamindars resented high taxes and rigid revenue collection methods, leading to debt and loss of land. The Indian sepoys in the Company's army were dissatisfied with pay, allowances, service conditions, and the disregard for their religious beliefs, particularly concerning the new rifle cartridges.

Nawabs Lose Their Power

Since the mid-18th century, Mughal governors (subadars) and big zamindars began asserting their authority, leading to the fragmentation of the Mughal Empire. The East India Company gradually eroded the power of regional rulers, appointing Residents, forcing them into subsidiary alliances, and annexing territories. Rulers like Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi and Nana Saheb petitioned the Company for succession rights and pensions, but their pleas were often denied.

The Peasants And The Sepoys

Peasants and zamindars suffered under the Company's revenue policies, facing high taxes and rigid collection methods, leading to debt and land loss. The sepoys were discontented with pay, allowances, and service conditions. New rules, like the requirement to serve overseas and the introduction of controversial rifle cartridges, violated their religious sentiments, leading to widespread discontent.

Responses to Reforms

The British enacted social reforms like banning Sati and encouraging widow remarriage, and promoted English education. However, they also facilitated Christian conversions through a new law in 1850, which allowed converts to inherit ancestral property. This, coupled with the disregard for traditional practices, led many Indians to believe that the British aimed to destroy their religion, culture, and way of life.

Through The Eyes Of The People

Accounts from the period, such as those by Vishnubhatt Godse and Subedar Sitaram Pande, reveal the sepoys' growing discontent and suspicion towards British rule. Vishnubhatt's narrative suggests sepoys believed the British intended to destroy Indian religions and imposed oppressive rules. Sitaram Pande's memoirs highlight the sepoys' anger over the annexation of Awadh and the introduction of new cartridges, which they suspected were greased with animal fat offensive to their religious beliefs. These accounts indicate that widespread discontent was brewing among various groups.

A Mutiny Becomes A Popular Rebellion

The sepoys' discontent, ignited by the cartridge issue and fueled by grievances related to the annexation of territories and social reforms, escalated into a massive rebellion in 1857. Starting in Meerut on May 10, 1857, when sepoys defied orders and marched to Delhi, the rebellion spread rapidly. The soldiers proclaimed the ageing Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar as their leader, giving the uprising a political aim. This marked a shift from a sepoy mutiny to a broader popular rebellion, as people from various sections of society, including peasants, zamindars, and local chiefs, joined the revolt against the Company.

From Meerut To Delhi

The rebellion began with sepoys in Meerut refusing to use the new rifle cartridges, leading to their dismissal and imprisonment. The following day, other soldiers in Meerut marched to Delhi, killed British officers, seized arms, and proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar as their leader, initiating the widespread uprising.

The Rebellion Spreads

Following the events in Delhi, the rebellion spread across North India. Regiments in various locations mutinied and joined rebel troops in key centers like Delhi, Kanpur, and Lucknow. Local leaders, zamindars, and chiefs rallied people, establishing their own authority. Nana Saheb in Kanpur and Birjis Qadr in Lucknow proclaimed themselves as leaders, acknowledging Bahadur Shah Zafar's supremacy. Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi and Rani Avantibai Lodhi also joined the rebellion, fighting against the British.

The Company Fights Back

Faced with the widespread rebellion, the East India Company mobilized its forces, brought in reinforcements from England, and passed new laws to swiftly punish rebels. They recaptured Delhi in September 1857, exiled Bahadur Shah Zafar, and suppressed the rebellion through military action. Key rebel leaders like Rani Lakshmibai, Tantia Tope, and Rani Avantibai were defeated and killed. The British also tried to regain loyalty by offering rewards and assurances to those who submitted, though hundreds were still punished.

Aftermath

Following the suppression of the rebellion in 1859, the British government restructured its administration in India. Power was transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown in 1858, with a Secretary of State for India appointed to oversee Indian affairs. The Governor-General was given the title of Viceroy. Policies were introduced to reassure Indian rulers of future non-annexation and respect for their territories and customs. The proportion of Indian soldiers in the army was reduced, while European soldiers were increased, with a shift in recruitment towards Gurkhas, Sikhs, and Pathans. Properties of Muslims were confiscated, and they were treated with suspicion, while landlords and zamindars were given security of rights over their lands.

The Khurda Uprising – A Case Study

The Khurda Uprising in 1817, prior to the 1857 rebellion, illustrates the build-up of resentment against British policies. After the British annexed Khurda in 1803, they imposed oppressive measures, including resuming service tenures, increasing revenue demands, and failing to recognize the paying capacity of ryots or the productive capacity of the land. This led to widespread desertion and hardship. The dispossession of hereditary military commander Buxi Jagabandhu, combined with the introduction of a new currency, increased prices of essentials, and salt monopoly, further fueled the uprising. The Paiks, along with zamindars and ryots, attacked government establishments, creating an armed resistance that the British struggled to contain, eventually leading to the imposition of martial law and suppression of the revolt, although Buxi Jagabandhu continued his resistance until 1825.

Exercises

The chapter exercises focus on understanding the causes, spread, and consequences of the 1857 rebellion. Questions require matching historical figures with their roles, filling in blanks about key events and policies, and stating true or false statements. Discussion prompts encourage analysis of the reasons for British confidence before the revolt, the impact of Bahadur Shah Zafar's support, the Company's methods of controlling landowners, changes in British policies post-rebellion, and the grievances of sepoys. Activities involve collecting stories about the 1857 revolt, researching Rani Lakshmibai, and imagining conversations between historical figures.