| Non-Rationalised Science NCERT Notes and Solutions (Class 6th to 10th) | ||||||||||||||
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Class 10th Science NCERT Notes and Solutions (Non-Rationalised)
1. Chemical Reactions And Equations
This chapter introduces the fundamental concept of **chemical reactions**, processes where reactants transform into products by breaking and forming chemical bonds. It teaches how to represent these reactions using **chemical equations**, emphasizing the importance of balancing them to obey the **Law of Conservation of Mass**. Different types of chemical reactions, such as combination, decomposition, displacement, double displacement, oxidation, and reduction (Redox reactions), are discussed with examples from everyday life, like rusting and rancidity, highlighting their significance.
2. Acids, Bases And Salts
This chapter explores the properties and behaviour of three important classes of chemical compounds: **acids**, **bases**, and **salts**. It defines them based on their taste, feel, and reactions with indicators like litmus. The **pH scale** is introduced as a measure of acidity or alkalinity ($\textsf{pH} = -\textsf{log}[\textsf{H}^+]$). Neutralisation reactions between acids and bases ($\textsf{Acid} + \textsf{Base} \rightarrow \textsf{Salt} + \textsf{Water}$) are central. The preparation and uses of common salts like Sodium Chloride ($\textsf{NaCl}$), Sodium Hydroxide ($\textsf{NaOH}$), Bleaching Powder ($\textsf{CaOCl}_2$), Baking Soda ($\textsf{NaHCO}_3$), Washing Soda ($\textsf{Na}_2\textsf{CO}_3 \cdot 10\textsf{H}_2\textsf{O}$), and Plaster of Paris ($\textsf{CaSO}_4 \cdot \frac{1}{2}\textsf{H}_2\textsf{O}$) are discussed.
3. Metals And Non-Metals
This chapter differentiates materials into **metals** and **non-metals** based on their physical and chemical properties. Physical properties include lustre, hardness, malleability, ductility, and conductivity. Chemical properties cover their reactions with air, water, acids, and bases. The **Reactivity Series** of metals is introduced, explaining the relative reactivity and displacement reactions. Formation of ionic compounds by electron transfer is discussed. The chapter also touches upon common metallurgical processes, corrosion (like rusting), and methods to prevent it, highlighting the importance of these elements in various applications.
4. Carbon And Its Compounds
This chapter focuses on **carbon**, a unique element forming a vast number of compounds, the basis of organic chemistry. Carbon's properties like **catenation** (self-linking) and **tetravalency** enable it to form diverse structures. Covalent bonding is explained. **Hydrocarbons** (saturated and unsaturated) are introduced. The chapter covers nomenclature of carbon compounds, functional groups (like -OH, -CHO, -COOH), homologous series, and isomerism. Important carbon compounds like ethanol and ethanoic acid, along with properties of soaps and detergents, are discussed, highlighting their significance in industry and daily life.
5. Periodic Classification Of Elements
This chapter explores the need for classifying elements and traces the development of the **Periodic Table**. Early attempts by Dobereiner (Triads) and Newlands (Law of Octaves) are discussed, leading to Mendeleev's Periodic Table based on atomic mass. The **Modern Periodic Table**, based on atomic number, is explained, including periods and groups. **Periodicity of properties**, such as atomic size, valency, metallic and non-metallic character, and electronegativity, is discussed, showing how properties change predictably across the table. This organization helps in understanding the properties of elements.
6. Life Processes
This comprehensive chapter covers the fundamental **life processes** essential for the survival and maintenance of living organisms. It explains **nutrition** (modes like autotrophic and heterotrophic), **respiration** (release of energy from food), **transportation** (movement of substances within the body in animals via circulatory system and in plants via xylem/phloem), and **excretion** (removal of metabolic wastes). These processes are discussed in detail for both plants and animals, including the human body, showcasing the complexity and coordination of biological functions.
7. Control And Coordination
This chapter explores how organisms **control** their activities and **coordinate** functions to respond to their environment. In animals, the **nervous system** (brain, spinal cord, nerves) provides rapid coordination through nerve impulses, and the **endocrine system** provides slower, hormonal coordination. Reflex actions are explained. Coordination in plants is achieved through **plant hormones** (phytohormones) regulating growth, development, and responses to stimuli like light (phototropism) and gravity (geotropism). Understanding these systems reveals how organisms maintain internal balance and interact with their surroundings.
8. How Do Organisms Reproduce?
Reproduction is the process by which organisms create new individuals, ensuring the continuity of species. This chapter details various methods of reproduction. **Asexual reproduction**, involving a single parent, includes fission, fragmentation, regeneration, budding, vegetative propagation, and spore formation, discussed with examples. **Sexual reproduction**, involving two parents and fusion of gametes, is covered in both plants (pollination, fertilisation) and animals (including the human reproductive system), highlighting its role in generating genetic variation and evolution.
9. Heredity And Evolution
This chapter explores the concepts of **heredity** (inheritance of traits from parents) and **evolution** (gradual change in organisms over generations). **Mendel's experiments** on pea plants and his Laws of Inheritance are foundational. Concepts like genes, alleles, genotype, phenotype, and sex determination are explained. The chapter discusses sources of variation (mutations) and the process of evolution, including **natural selection**, speciation, and the importance of fossils and other evidence for understanding the evolutionary history of life on Earth.
10. Light – Reflection And Refraction
This physics chapter investigates the phenomena of light interacting with surfaces and media. **Reflection** is the bouncing back of light from a surface, with laws of reflection discussed. Image formation by plane and spherical mirrors (concave and convex) is explained using ray diagrams. **Refraction** is the bending of light as it passes from one medium to another, governed by Snell's Law ($\textsf{n}_1 \sin \theta_1 = \textsf{n}_2 \sin \theta_2$). Image formation by lenses (convex and concave) is covered, introducing lens formulae ($\frac{1}{\textsf{v}} - \frac{1}{\textsf{u}} = \frac{1}{\textsf{f}}$) and magnification.
11. The Human Eye And The Colourful World
This chapter focuses on the **human eye**, our natural optical instrument, explaining its structure and how it forms images. Common vision defects like myopia, hypermetropia, and presbyopia are discussed, along with their correction using appropriate lenses. The chapter also explores colourful phenomena related to light, such as the **dispersion of white light** by a prism (forming a spectrum), **atmospheric refraction** (twinkling of stars, apparent sunrise/sunset), and **scattering of light** (explaining the blue colour of the sky and reddish appearance of the sun at sunrise/sunset).
12. Electricity
This fundamental chapter introduces **electric current**, the flow of electric charge. Concepts like electric potential and potential difference ($\textsf{V}$), **Ohm's Law** ($\textsf{V = IR}$), resistance ($\textsf{R}$), resistivity ($\rho$), and factors affecting resistance are explained. Series and parallel combinations of resistors are analyzed. The chapter covers the **heating effect of electric current** ($\textsf{H} = \textsf{I}^2\textsf{Rt}$), its applications (e.g., in heaters), and **electric power** ($\textsf{P} = \textsf{VI}$). The concept of electric energy and its commercial unit (kilowatt-hour) is also discussed.
13. Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current
This chapter explores the relationship between electricity and magnetism. It explains that an electric current produces a magnetic field around it. The magnetic field lines due to a current in a straight wire, circular loop, and solenoid are discussed. The **force exerted on a current-carrying conductor** placed in a magnetic field and the working principle of an **electric motor** are explained. **Electromagnetic induction** – inducing current by changing magnetic field – and the working principle of an **electric generator** are also covered, highlighting the interconversion of electrical and mechanical energy.
14. Sources Of Energy
This chapter discusses various sources of energy used for our needs, focusing on both conventional and non-conventional sources. Conventional sources include **fossil fuels** (coal, petroleum, natural gas) and **hydroelectricity**. Non-conventional or renewable sources include **solar energy**, **wind energy**, **biomass energy**, **tidal energy**, and **geothermal energy**. The chapter evaluates these sources based on their availability, environmental impact, and efficiency, emphasizing the need for sustainable energy solutions for the future, particularly in India's context.
15. Our Environment
This chapter introduces the concept of the **environment** and the interactions within it. It discusses **ecosystems**, comprising biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components. The flow of energy through different trophic levels in a **food chain** and complex **food webs** is explained. Environmental problems like **waste generation** and its management, the depletion of the **ozone layer**, and their impacts are addressed. The chapter underscores the importance of understanding and protecting our environment for ecological balance and human well-being.
16. Sustainable Management Of Natural Resources
This chapter focuses on the responsible use and management of natural resources like forests, wildlife, water, coal, and petroleum, especially critical in a populous nation like India. It highlights the need for **sustainable development**, ensuring resources are used judiciously without compromising future generations. Conservation strategies, public participation in management (e.g., Chipko Andolan), dam management, rainwater harvesting, and the judicious use of fossil fuels are discussed, emphasizing the **3 Rs (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle)** principle for resource conservation.