Political Formations in the Eighteenth Century (Transition from Mughal)

Eighteenth-Century Political Formations (Intro)

The 18th century in Indian history is a period of transition, marked by the decline of the powerful Mughal Empire and the simultaneous emergence of numerous independent regional kingdoms. This led to a complex political landscape across the subcontinent.

By the early 18th century, the central authority of the Mughal emperor had significantly weakened. This created a power vacuum and provided opportunities for provincial governors and local chieftains to assert their independence and establish new states.

This period also saw the increasing influence of European trading companies, particularly the English East India Company, which would eventually lead to the establishment of colonial rule.

Understanding the political formations of the 18th century is crucial for tracing the shift from a pan-Indian empire to fragmented regional powers, which paved the way for British dominance.

The Crisis Of The Empire And The Later Mughals

The decline of the Mughal Empire was a gradual process that began after the reign of Emperor Aurangzeb (ruled 1658-1707 CE). Several factors contributed to the crisis that led to the weakening of the central authority and the fragmentation of the empire.

Factors Contributing to the Mughal Decline:

Aurangzeb's long wars: Aurangzeb's lengthy and costly military campaigns, particularly in the Deccan, drained the empire's resources and put a strain on the military and administration.
Financial strain: The constant warfare, coupled with the increasing number of Mansabdars and the scarcity of profitable jagirs (jagirdari crisis), led to a financial crisis. The estimated revenue (jama) often did not match the actual revenue collected (hasil), creating shortages.
Weak later emperors: Aurangzeb's successors were generally weak rulers, unable to control the powerful nobility or effectively administer the vast empire.
Powerful nobility: The provincial governors and powerful nobles (Mansabdars and Zamindars) accumulated power and resources, often acting independently and eventually asserting their autonomy.
Rise of regional powers: Various groups and communities (Marathas, Sikhs, Jats) challenged Mughal authority and established their own regional kingdoms.
Breakdown of administration: The effectiveness of the Mughal administrative system declined in many areas due to corruption, inefficiency, and weakening central control.

The Later Mughals:

The emperors who ruled after Aurangzeb (from 1707 onwards) are known as the Later Mughals.
They were often short-lived rulers, facing constant challenges from within the court (struggles among nobles for power) and from external threats and internal rebellions.
The capital Delhi was sacked multiple times by invaders like Nadir Shah (Persia) in 1739 and Ahmad Shah Abdali (Afghanistan) in the mid-18th century.
By the mid-18th century, the Mughal emperor's authority was confined to a small area around Delhi, and the empire existed only in name for the rest of the subcontinent.

Image of one of the later Mughal emperors or a scene depicting the decline

*(Image shows a painting or illustration of a Later Mughal emperor)*

The crisis of the Mughal Empire and the weakness of the Later Mughals created the conditions for the emergence of independent regional political formations in the 18th century.

Emergence Of New States

The decline of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century led to the disintegration of its centralised power and the rise of independent regional states. These new states emerged in various parts of the former Mughal territories, reshaping the political map of India.

Types of New States:

The states that emerged in the 18th century can be broadly categorised into three overlapping groups:

Successor States: States that were previously large Mughal provinces whose governors broke away from central control and established independent kingdoms.
Example: Hyderabad, Awadh, Bengal.
Watan Jagirs of Rajputs: Rajput principalities that were essentially autonomous under the Mughals but further consolidated their position and expanded their influence in the 18th century.
States under the control of Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats: States established by groups who had challenged Mughal authority for a long time and carved out their own territories.

Map showing independent regional states emerging in the 18th century

*(Image shows a map of India around the mid-18th century, illustrating the fragmented political landscape with various independent regional states replacing the Mughal Empire)*

The emergence of these new states marked a shift from imperial rule to a system of regional powers, which were often in conflict with each other. This fragmented political scenario also provided opportunities for European powers to expand their influence and eventually establish colonial rule.

The Old Mughal Provinces

As the Mughal Empire weakened, some of the largest and most important provinces became effectively independent states. The governors of these provinces, while initially appointed by the Mughal emperor, gradually asserted their autonomy and ruled their territories independently.

Hyderabad

Founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I (ruled 1724-1748 CE).
He was a powerful Mughal noble who was appointed as the governor of the Deccan province.
He gradually consolidated his control over the Deccan, accumulated power, and established himself as the independent ruler of Hyderabad, while still nominally acknowledging the Mughal emperor.
He faced challenges from the Marathas in the west and the Rayas of the Telugu region in the south.

Awadh

Founded by Sa'adat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk (appointed governor in 1722 CE).
He was a powerful Mughal noble who established a virtually independent state in Awadh (modern Uttar Pradesh).
He reduced Mughal influence by reducing the number of jagirdars appointed by the emperor and appointing his own loyal officials.
He introduced reforms in revenue administration.

Bengal

Founded by Murshid Quli Khan (appointed Diwan, later governor in 1717/1727 CE).
He transferred the capital to Murshidabad.
He established independent control over Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha, although he sent revenue to the Mughal emperor.
He faced challenges from powerful bankers (e.g., Jagat Seths) and Zamindars.
The Nawabs of Bengal, particularly Siraj-ud-Daulah, later came into conflict with the English East India Company, leading to the Battle of Plassey (1757) and the beginning of British political dominance in Bengal.

*(Image shows a map of India in the 18th century highlighting the regions of Hyderabad, Awadh, and Bengal as independent states)*

These successor states, initially large provinces of the Mughal Empire, became significant regional powers in the 18th century, contributing to the fragmentation of the empire and creating a new political order before their eventual absorption by the British.

The Watan Jagirs Of The Rajputs

The Rajput rulers, who had formed alliances with the Mughals and served them, also saw an opportunity to consolidate their power and expand their influence in the 18th century as the Mughal Empire declined. They were granted autonomy in their ancestral territories (watan jagirs).

Watan Jagirs:

Under the Mughals, Rajput rulers were often allowed to rule their ancestral kingdoms as autonomous territories called watan jagirs. These jagirs were not transferable like the regular jagirs granted to Mansabdars.
In return for their loyalty and service in the Mughal army and administration, Rajput rulers had considerable control over their watan jagirs.

Expansion of Influence in the 18th Century:

In the 18th century, many Rajput rulers, taking advantage of the weakening Mughal authority, expanded their influence over neighbouring areas.
They often received jagirs (revenue assignments) from the Mughal emperors in territories outside their watan jagirs. These jagirs could be quite extensive.
Rajput rulers attempted to extend the authority of their watan jagirs over these adjacent areas, effectively converting transferable jagirs into hereditary possessions.
Example: The Rajput ruler Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur was also appointed as the Mughal governor of Gujarat, and Sawai Jai Singh of Amber (Jaipur) was appointed as the governor of Agra. These rulers used their positions to consolidate their power and expand their territories.

Map showing Rajput states in the 18th century and areas of their influence

*(Image shows a map of Rajasthan and surrounding areas in the 18th century, highlighting the Rajput states and possibly areas where they expanded their influence)*

The Rajput states, with their hereditary control over watan jagirs and their attempts to expand into new territories, were significant regional powers in the 18th century political landscape, navigating the decline of the Mughal Empire and vying for power with other emerging states like the Marathas.

Seizing Independence

Besides the successor states that emerged from former Mughal provinces, the 18th century also saw the rise of states established by groups who had been in opposition to Mughal authority for a long time. These groups successfully challenged the empire and carved out their own independent territories.

The Sikhs

The Sikh community in Punjab had been organised into a political and military force under the leadership of Guru Gobind Singh in the late 17th century.
After the death of Guru Gobind Singh, the Sikhs revolted against the Mughals under the leadership of Banda Bahadur.
In the 18th century, taking advantage of the Mughal decline and repeated invasions from the northwest (by Nadir Shah, Ahmad Shah Abdali), the Sikhs organised themselves into misls (confederacies).
By the end of the 18th century, the Sikhs controlled large parts of Punjab.
In the early 19th century, Maharaja Ranjit Singh unified the misls and established the powerful Sikh Kingdom of Punjab, with its capital at Lahore.

The Marathas

The Marathas under Shivaji Maharaj had already challenged Mughal authority in the Deccan in the 17th century, establishing an independent kingdom.
After Shivaji's death, the Maratha power faced Mughal pressure but survived.
In the 18th century, under the leadership of the Peshwas (hereditary prime ministers of the Maratha king), the Marathas became the most formidable power in India.
They expanded their influence and control over vast territories, launching raids and demanding tribute (chauth and sardeshmukhi) from Mughal territories and other kingdoms.
The Maratha Confederacy, under various Maratha sardars (chiefs like the Gaekwads, Sindhias, Holkars, Bhonsles), became a major force, challenging the Mughals and other regional states for dominance across the subcontinent.

Map showing the rise of the Maratha Empire in the 18th century

*(Image shows a map illustrating the expansion and influence of the Maratha Empire/Confederacy in the 18th century)*

The Jats

The Jats were a community of agriculturists living in the region around Delhi, Agra, and Mathura.
They also revolted against the Mughals in the late 17th and 18th centuries due to agrarian grievances and religious policies.
Under leaders like Churaman and Badan Singh, the Jats carved out their own kingdom, with its capital at Bharatpur.
The Jat kingdom was a local power in the region, often in conflict with the Mughals, Rajputs, and later, the Marathas and Afghans.

The rise of these groups like the Sikhs, Marathas, and Jats from being challengers to the Mughal Empire to establishing their own independent states demonstrates the changing power dynamics in the 18th century, contributing to the fragmentation of Mughal authority and creating a multi-polar political landscape.

The Mughal Empire In The Seventeenth Century And After (Decline)

The Mughal Empire reached its peak in the 17th century under emperors like Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, controlling a vast territory and possessing immense wealth and power. However, the seeds of its decline were also sown during this period, leading to its disintegration in the 18th century.

Economic And Social Conditions (during the 17th century):

The 17th century was generally a period of economic prosperity, marked by flourishing agriculture, crafts, and extensive trade (both internal and external).
Cities were vibrant centres of economic activity.
The empire generated huge revenues, primarily from land revenue.
However, wealth was concentrated in the hands of the emperor and the nobility (Mansabdars). There was significant inequality.
The demands of the state for revenue could be heavy on the peasantry, leading to agrarian distress in some areas.
Social tensions existed due to various factors, including social hierarchy (caste, status), religious differences, and the relationship between the state, Zamindars, and peasants.

Decline Of The Empire And Rise Of Regional Powers

As discussed earlier (Section I2), the decline became pronounced after Aurangzeb (1707).
Factors like the long wars, financial strain, weakening central authority, struggles among nobles, and the rise of regional powers contributed to the decline.
The administrative machinery, though sophisticated, became less effective due to corruption, inefficiency, and lack of strong central control.
The increasing power and autonomy of provincial governors (leading to successor states) and the successful challenges by groups like the Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats fragmented the empire.
The Mughal Empire effectively ceased to be a dominant pan-Indian power by the mid-18th century, although the Mughal emperor in Delhi remained a symbolic figure.

Image depicting the decline of the Mughal Empire or a scene from the 18th century highlighting regional powers

*(Image shows a painting or illustration representing the decline of Mughal authority or a map showing fragmented political control in the 18th century)*

The 18th century marked a fundamental shift in the political landscape of India, from a period of imperial dominance to a multi-polar system of regional states, creating the conditions for the rise of the English East India Company as the dominant political force.