Impact on Crafts and Industries (Early Colonial Period)

Indian Textiles And The World Market (Context)

Indian textiles were famous worldwide for their fine quality, intricate designs, and vibrant colours. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Indian textiles were in high demand in Europe and other parts of the world, forming a major part of India's export trade.

Words Tell Us Histories

• The popularity of Indian textiles in Europe is reflected in the words used to describe them, which were derived from Indian languages.
• Example: Calico (from Calicut, Kerala, a port from where cotton textiles were exported). Chintz (from the Hindi word 'chhint', referring to a printed cotton cloth). Bandanna (from the Hindi word 'bandhna', referring to brightly coloured and patterned scarf).
• These terms in European languages demonstrate the historical significance of Indian textiles in global trade.

Indian Textiles In European Markets

• European trading companies (English, Dutch, French, Portuguese) came to India primarily to purchase spices, but soon found that Indian textiles were also a very profitable commodity for trade.
• Indian cotton textiles were particularly popular in Europe for their lightness, fine texture, and relative affordability compared to European alternatives.
• Patterns like chintz (floral designs) and muslins were highly fashionable.
• Indian textiles were also traded to other parts of the world (Southeast Asia, West Asia) through Indian and foreign merchants.

Where Were The Major Centres Of Weaving In The Late Eighteenth Century?

• In the late 18th century, before the full impact of industrialisation in Britain, India had numerous major centres of textile production.
• These centres were spread across different regions, each often specialising in certain types of textiles or techniques.
• Example:
  • Bengal (especially Dhaka) was famous for fine muslins.
  • Coromandel Coast (southeast India, e.g., Masulipatnam) for cotton textiles and chintz.
  • Gujarat (e.g., Surat, Ahmedabad) for cotton and silk textiles, brocades.
  • Uttar Pradesh (e.g., Lucknow, Varanasi) for textiles and brocades.
  • Punjab for cotton textiles.
• These centres were supported by networks of weavers, spinners, dyers, printers, and merchants.

*(Image shows a map of India highlighting the locations of major textile production centres mentioned)*

Indian textiles were a major global commodity, supporting a vast network of production and trade within India, and contributing significantly to India's economic importance on the world stage before the Industrial Revolution in Europe.

Who Were The Weavers?

Weavers were the craftspersons who produced textiles in India. They formed a significant community in medieval and early colonial Indian society. Their skills and organisation were key to India's renowned textile industry.

The Weaving Community:

• Weaving was a hereditary occupation, passed down from generation to generation within specific communities (jatis).
• Different castes and communities were involved in weaving in different regions.
• Weavers often lived in clusters or villages associated with weaving centres.

The Production Process:

• The weaving process involved multiple steps, often performed by different individuals or family members:
  • Spinning: Converting cotton or wool into thread, often done by women.
  • Dyeing: Colouring the threads.
  • Weaving: Using looms to interlace threads and create fabric.
  • Printing: Adding designs to the fabric (as in chintz).
• The entire family, including women and children, were often involved in different stages of production.

Relationship with Traders:

• Weavers often worked on orders received from merchants or traders.
• Merchants provided raw materials (yarn) or advances to weavers to produce cloth.
• The merchants then purchased the finished cloth and sold it in local, regional, or international markets.
• This system, while providing work to weavers, also sometimes made them dependent on the merchants.

Weavers were skilled artisans whose labour and hereditary knowledge sustained India's position as a major textile producer and exporter in the pre-industrial world. Their lives and work were deeply integrated into the economic and social fabric of medieval and early colonial India.

The Decline Of Indian Textiles

The dominance of Indian textiles in the world market faced a significant challenge with the Industrial Revolution in Britain, starting from the late 18th century. Over the 19th century, the Indian textile industry, particularly handloom weaving, underwent a period of decline.

Factors Leading to the Decline:

• Growth of Machine-Made Textiles in Britain: The development of power looms and other machinery in Britain allowed for mass production of textiles at a lower cost. This made British textiles more competitive in both European and Indian markets.
• Colonial Policies: The policies of the English East India Company and later the British government in India actively harmed the Indian textile industry to benefit the British textile industry.
  • High import duties were imposed on Indian textiles entering Britain, making them expensive in the British market.
  • Low import duties were imposed on British manufactured goods (including textiles) entering India, allowing them to compete with and displace Indian handlooms in the Indian market.
  • The Company stopped giving advances to weavers and forced them to sell their produce at low prices, making it difficult for weavers to earn a living.
  • Control over raw materials: The British increasingly procured raw cotton from India for their mills in Britain, sometimes at low prices, impacting the availability and price of raw materials for Indian weavers.
• Competition in world markets: Indian textiles faced competition from British machine-made textiles in other international markets as well.

Impact on Weavers:

• Thousands of weavers lost their livelihoods as the demand for handloom textiles decreased both in India and abroad.
• Many weavers were forced to migrate to villages, take up agricultural labour, or seek other occupations.
• Skilled craftspersons faced unemployment and poverty.
• Some specialised weaving centres declined.

The decline of Indian textiles during the early colonial period was a direct consequence of colonial policies aimed at favouring British industries and integrating India into the global capitalist system as a supplier of raw materials and a market for British manufactured goods. This process is often referred to as the 'deindustrialisation' of India in certain sectors.

Manchester Comes To India

Manchester was a major industrial city in Britain that became a centre of textile production during the Industrial Revolution. The phrase "Manchester comes to India" refers to the influx of cheap, machine-made textiles from Manchester (Britain) into the Indian market, which significantly impacted the indigenous handloom industry.

Shift in Trade Pattern:

• In the early 18th century, the English East India Company primarily exported goods from India to Britain.
• By the mid-19th century, the trade pattern reversed. India became a major market for British manufactured goods, and a supplier of raw materials (like raw cotton) for British industries.

Impact of British Textiles:

• Machine-made textiles from Manchester were produced on a large scale and were cheaper than Indian handloom textiles.
• With low import duties in India, these textiles flooded the Indian market.
• Indian handloom weavers, with their traditional methods, could not compete with the prices of machine-made goods.
• Demand for Indian handloom textiles declined both in cities and villages in India.

Consequences:

• Mass unemployment among Indian weavers and spinners.
• Decline of traditional weaving centres.
• Shift of population from traditional crafts to agriculture (increasing pressure on land).
• Transformation of India from a major exporter of finished textiles to an importer of textiles and an exporter of raw materials.

The arrival of "Manchester goods" symbolised the economic transformation of India under colonial rule, where the Indian economy was restructured to serve the needs of the British industrial economy, leading to the decline of indigenous industries.

The Sword Of Tipu Sultan And Wootz Steel (Context)

The quality of weapons, particularly swords, was a matter of pride for rulers and armies. The sword of Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore, is famous and is linked to a unique type of high-quality steel produced in South India called Wootz steel.

Wootz Steel:

• Wootz steel was a highly valued type of steel produced in South India, particularly in Mysore and other regions.
• It was known for its extremely hard and sharp edge and its distinctive patterned surface (Damascene pattern) when forged into swords.
• This pattern was a result of the specific process of smelting and alloying iron with carbon in small clay pots (crucibles).
• Wootz steel was exported from India to Persia and Europe, where it was used to make high-quality swords that were renowned for their sharpness and durability (e.g., Damascus swords).

*(Image shows a photograph of Tipu Sultan's sword or a historical illustration/photograph related to Wootz steel production)*

Significance:

• The existence of Wootz steel highlights the advanced metallurgical skills and iron-smelting technologies that existed in India in the medieval period.
• It demonstrates that India was not only a major producer of textiles but also had expertise in metalworking that was valued internationally.
• Tipu Sultan's use of swords made from this steel symbolised the martial capabilities of his kingdom.

However, the production of Wootz steel gradually declined and disappeared under colonial rule due to various factors (see Section I6).

Abandoned Furnaces In Villages (Iron Smelting Decline)

The story of Wootz steel and Tipu Sultan's sword reflects a broader aspect of India's pre-colonial industrial capacity in metalworking. However, like the textile industry, indigenous iron smelting and other metalworking crafts also faced decline under colonial rule, leading to "abandoned furnaces in villages".

Indigenous Iron Smelting:

• India had a long tradition of iron smelting, spread across various regions and carried out by specific communities (often tribal groups).
• Villages often had local furnaces where iron ore was smelted using charcoal (made from wood) to produce iron for making agricultural tools and other implements.
• The production of high-quality steel like Wootz steel was a more specialised process.

Factors Leading to the Decline:

• New forest laws: The British colonial government enacted forest laws that restricted access to forests. Forest produce, including wood for charcoal (essential fuel for smelting) and iron ore, became difficult to obtain or required expensive permits.
• Import of British iron and steel: Iron and steel produced in industrial Britain were cheaper due to mass production. These goods were imported into India and replaced the products of indigenous smelters.
• High taxes: Taxes were imposed on furnaces and the collection of forest produce, making indigenous production less profitable.
• Competition from new iron and steel plants: The establishment of modern iron and steel plants in India (e.g., Tata Steel in Jamshedpur, early 20th century) using modern technology and large-scale production further impacted village-level smelting.

Consequences:

• Abandonment of village furnaces.
• Decline of the traditional craft of iron smelting.
• Loss of livelihood for communities dependent on this craft.
• India became increasingly dependent on imported iron and steel from Britain.

The decline of indigenous iron smelting, symbolised by abandoned furnaces in villages, reflects how colonial policies and the influx of industrially produced goods undermined traditional Indian crafts and industries, leading to deindustrialisation in various sectors beyond textiles.