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Class 10th Science NCERT Notes and Solutions (Non-Rationalised)
1. Chemical Reactions And Equations
This chapter introduces the dynamic world of chemical reactions, processes where new substances with new properties are formed. It teaches the essential skill of representing these changes using symbolic chemical equations. A key focus is on the importance of balancing chemical equations to satisfy the fundamental Law of Conservation of Mass. The chapter systematically classifies reactions into different types: Combination, Decomposition (thermal, electrolytic, photolytic), Displacement, and Double Displacement reactions. It also introduces Redox reactions, involving simultaneous oxidation and reduction, and discusses their impact in everyday phenomena like the corrosion of metals (rusting) and the spoilage of food (rancidity).
2. Acids, Bases And Salts
This chapter explores three crucial classes of chemical compounds: acids, bases, and salts. It describes their characteristic properties and how to identify them using indicators like litmus. The concept of the pH scale is introduced as a quantitative measure of the strength of acidic or basic solutions. The central reaction of the chapter is Neutralisation, where an acid reacts with a base to form a salt and water ($\textsf{Acid} + \textsf{Base} \rightarrow \textsf{Salt} + \textsf{Water}$). The chapter provides a detailed study of the preparation, properties, and uses of several commercially important salts, including Sodium Hydroxide ($\textsf{NaOH}$), Bleaching Powder ($\textsf{CaOCl}_2$), Baking Soda ($\textsf{NaHCO}_3$), Washing Soda ($\textsf{Na}_2\textsf{CO}_3 \cdot 10\textsf{H}_2\textsf{O}$), and Plaster of Paris ($\textsf{CaSO}_4 \cdot \frac{1}{2}\textsf{H}_2\textsf{O}$).
3. Metals And Non-Metals
This chapter classifies elements into metals and non-metals based on their distinct physical and chemical properties. It details physical properties like lustre, hardness, malleability (ability to be beaten into sheets), ductility (ability to be drawn into wires), and electrical conductivity. The chapter also explores chemical properties, including how metals and non-metals react with oxygen, water, and acids. A key concept introduced is the Reactivity Series, which arranges metals in order of decreasing reactivity and helps predict displacement reactions. It explains the formation of ionic compounds through the transfer of electrons and provides an introduction to basic metallurgical processes and the prevention of corrosion.
4. Carbon And Its Compounds
This chapter opens the door to organic chemistry by focusing on the exceptionally versatile element, carbon. It explains that carbon's unique ability to form a vast number of compounds is due to two key properties: catenation (the ability to form long chains with itself) and its tetravalency (the ability to form four covalent bonds). The chapter introduces hydrocarbons (saturated and unsaturated), functional groups, and the concept of a homologous series. It also discusses the systematic nomenclature of organic compounds. The properties of important carbon compounds like ethanol and ethanoic acid, along with the cleansing mechanism of soaps and detergents, are also detailed.
5. Periodic Classification Of Elements
This chapter traces the historical journey of classifying elements to make their study more systematic. It discusses early attempts like Döbereiner's Triads and Newlands' Law of Octaves before focusing on Mendeleev's Periodic Table, which was a major breakthrough. The chapter then explains the structure and principles of the Modern Periodic Table, which is based on atomic number instead of atomic mass. It details the arrangement of elements into periods and groups. A key focus is on understanding the periodic trends (periodicity) in properties like atomic size, valency, and metallic character as one moves across a period or down a group.
6. Life Processes
This comprehensive biology chapter covers the fundamental processes that are essential for maintaining life, collectively known as life processes. It provides a detailed study of four key functions: Nutrition, which includes autotrophic (e.g., photosynthesis in plants) and heterotrophic modes; Respiration, the process of energy release from food, covering both aerobic and anaerobic pathways; Transportation, which involves the circulatory system in animals (heart, blood) and the vascular system in plants (xylem, phloem); and Excretion, the removal of metabolic waste products from the body, focusing on the human urinary system.
7. Control And Coordination
This chapter explains how multicellular organisms have evolved complex systems to control and coordinate their various bodily functions and respond to environmental stimuli. In animals, it details the two main systems: the nervous system for rapid, electrical communication (involving the brain, spinal cord, and nerves) and the endocrine system for slower, chemical communication through hormones. The mechanism of a reflex arc is also explained. In plants, coordination is achieved through chemical substances called plant hormones (or phytohormones) that regulate growth and trigger responses to stimuli, known as tropic movements (like phototropism).
8. How Do Organisms Reproduce?
This chapter explores the fundamental biological process of reproduction, which is essential for the perpetuation of a species. It details the two major modes. Asexual reproduction, involving a single parent, is discussed through various methods like fission, fragmentation, regeneration, budding, and vegetative propagation. Sexual reproduction, which involves two parents and the fusion of gametes, is explained in both flowering plants (detailing pollination and fertilisation) and in humans (describing the male and female reproductive systems). The chapter highlights that sexual reproduction is a source of genetic variation, which is crucial for adaptation and evolution.
9. Heredity And Evolution
This chapter deals with two interconnected concepts: heredity, the transmission of traits from one generation to the next, and evolution, the process of gradual change in species over time. The principles of heredity are explained through the groundbreaking work of Gregor Mendel and his experiments on pea plants. Key genetic terms like genes and alleles are introduced. The second part of the chapter discusses the mechanism of evolution, with a focus on Darwin's theory of natural selection. It presents evidence for evolution from fossils, homologous organs, and analogous organs, and briefly touches upon human evolution.
10. Light – Reflection And Refraction
This physics chapter explores the behaviour of light. It details the phenomenon of Reflection, the bouncing of light from a surface, and discusses the laws of reflection and image formation by plane and spherical mirrors (concave and convex). It then explains Refraction, the bending of light as it travels from one medium to another, governed by Snell's Law. The chapter provides a comprehensive study of image formation by spherical lenses (concave and convex) using ray diagrams. Key formulae like the mirror formula, lens formula ($\frac{1}{\textsf{v}} - \frac{1}{\textsf{u}} = \frac{1}{\textsf{f}}$), and magnification are introduced for problem-solving.
11. The Human Eye And The Colourful World
This chapter applies the principles of light to explain the working of the human eye and various natural optical phenomena. It details the structure and function of the eye, including its ability to focus via the power of accommodation. Common defects of vision like myopia (nearsightedness) and hypermetropia (farsightedness), and their correction using appropriate lenses, are discussed. The chapter also explains fascinating phenomena like the dispersion of white light by a prism, atmospheric refraction (causing the twinkling of stars), and the scattering of light (which accounts for the blue colour of the sky and the reddish appearance of the sun at sunrise and sunset).
12. Electricity
This fundamental physics chapter introduces the concepts of electricity. It begins by defining electric charge and electric current. It explains potential difference and introduces the crucial relationship between voltage, current, and resistance through Ohm's Law ($\textsf{V = IR}$). The chapter discusses factors affecting the resistance of a conductor and analyses the equivalent resistance of resistors connected in series and parallel. It also covers the heating effect of electric current (Joule's Law: $\textsf{H} = \textsf{I}^2\textsf{Rt}$) and defines electric power ($\textsf{P} = \textsf{VI}$).
13. Magnetic Effects Of Electric Current
This chapter reveals the intimate connection between electricity and magnetism. It establishes that an electric current produces a magnetic field, describing the pattern of field lines around a straight conductor and a solenoid. It explains the force experienced by a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field, the direction of which is given by Fleming's Left-Hand Rule, which is the working principle of an electric motor. The chapter then introduces electromagnetic induction—the phenomenon of producing an induced current in a coil by changing the magnetic field around it. This principle, governed by Fleming's Right-Hand Rule, is the basis for the electric generator.
14. Sources Of Energy
This chapter provides a broad overview of the various sources we harness for our energy needs. It classifies them into conventional sources, like fossil fuels (coal, petroleum) and hydropower, and non-conventional or alternative sources. The chapter explores a range of renewable energy options, including solar energy (used in solar cookers and solar cells), wind energy, and biomass energy (from gobar gas plants). It briefly touches upon energy from the sea (tidal and ocean thermal energy) and geothermal energy. The chapter emphasizes the environmental consequences of using different energy sources and advocates for a shift towards cleaner, sustainable options.
15. Our Environment
This chapter introduces the basics of ecology, focusing on the interactions within our environment. It defines an ecosystem and its biotic and abiotic components. A key concept explained is the flow of energy through different trophic levels in a food chain and a more complex food web. The chapter discusses how human activities impact the environment, focusing on two major issues: the problem of waste accumulation, differentiating between biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances, and the depletion of the protective ozone layer in the atmosphere due to chemicals like CFCs.
16. Sustainable Management Of Natural Resources
This chapter emphasizes the need for responsible stewardship of our natural resources to ensure their availability for future generations. It introduces the concept of sustainable development. It discusses the management of key resources like forests, wildlife, water (highlighting the benefits of dams and rainwater harvesting), coal, and petroleum. The chapter advocates for a shift in attitude from exploitation to conservation, promoting the active participation of local communities. It strongly reinforces the importance of the "Five R's" to save the environment: Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, Repurpose, and Recycle.